Summary Of The International Monetary System Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 1957 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? The issues with globalization are not new and those issues associated with trade and how to pay for the transferred goods has definitely been around for a while. Currently the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is the organization that has been tasked with stabilizing the international monetary system, which can fluctuate at any time of the day. If the monetary system were allowed to fluctuate on its money countries would find themselves in a difficult situation, which they would have, very little impact on their own. The world has seen a number of different systems over the last 150 years, from the Gold Standard to the systems we have in place today. So far the IMF has been the most successful, but even it has had to make some drastic decisions, like the one in Argentina in 1991 the IMF ruled that it would not bail them out again. The Argentinean Economy was teetering and the IMF ruled that more loans would be futile. Argentinas money was tied to the US dollar, 1 for 1, but the system was failing and the IMF ruled that drastic measures would be needed, before more help could be provided. In the aftermath the economy and stability of the Argentine nation crashed (Blustein, 54). This is a drastic case, but the IMF must provide financial stability, it cannot just provide loans through the World Bank to hold off the inevitable. Before I get into the real mission of the IMF lets first take a look at a few of the international monetary systems that were used in the past. The first adoption of many of the functions of the modern international monetary system can be traced back to the gold standard. The gold standard was the system that was in use from the late 19th until early in 20th century up until just after World War I. The gold standard was based on the free circulation between nations of gold coins of standard specification, mainly based on the gold coins produced by the Royal Mint in England. Under the gold standard system, gold was the only standard of value; in short all currency and trade goods were fixed on the value of gold. The reason the gold standard collapsed was the lack of liquidity; the worlds supply of money in circulation was limited by the worlds supply of gold. The discovery of a new gold field could cause prices to rise. The increase in trade and other problems with the system caused the international gold standard break down in 1914. The gold standard was replaced by the gold bullion standard during the twenties under which nations no longer minted gold coins but backed their currencies with gold bullion and agreed to buy and sell the bullion at a fixed price. Similar issues caused the gold bullion standard system to collapse, and it only lasted about ten years. Gold continued to play an important part in the monetary system with the adoption of the Gold-Exchange System used in the period after World War II, trade was conducted according to the gold-exchange standard. The participating nations fixed the value of their currencies not with respect to gold, but to some foreign currency, which is in turn fixed to and redeemable in gold. Most nations fixed their currencies to the U.S. dollar and retained dollar reserves in the United States, which became known as the key currency country. The decision to go to ultimately go to the Gold-Exchange System was made at the Bretton Woods international conference in 1944. The result of the conference ultimately led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The IMF would be tasked with maintaining a stable exchange rate on a global level (Galbraith, 160). The IMF continues to the present day and the world does not seem to be moving away from its support of the IMF. The IMF has dealt with two key changes in the way the monetary system has been dealt with, both involved US currency. The first led to the Two-Tier System which was occurred during the sixties, as U.S. commitments drew gold reserves from the nation. Thi s caused the dollar to weaken, leading some countries exchange dollars for gold, this led to a drain on U.S. gold reserves. The two-tier system was created in 1968, In the official tier, consisted of central bank gold traders, in this tier the value of gold was set at $35 an ounce, to keep gold reserves stable gold payments to no central bankers were prohibited (Mayer, 1). The second tie was the free-market tier, mainly all nongovernmental gold traders; golds price fluctuated like a normal market, through supply and demand. Gold and the U.S. dollar continued to be the major reserve asset for the worlds central banks. This system did not stop the drain on U.S. gold reserves; in 1971 the United States was forced to abandon gold convertibility. This action left the world without a single, unified international monetary system. This is considered to be the end of the fixed rate system, which evolved from the collapse of the gold standard way back in 1914 (Greider, 251). With the end of the two tiered system, there was a period of high inflation after the United States abandoned gold convertibility. This action forced the IMF to agree (1976) to a system of floating exchange rates, this formally ended the gold standard. The values of various currencies were to be determined by the market. This is something we experience today as we convert currency during international travel; it changes on a regular basis. The US dollar was and is still seen as the key currency, the Japanese yen and the German Deutschmark strengthened and became increasingly important in international financial markets. The introduction of the euro was introduced in financial markets in 1999 as replacement for eleven mainly European currencies (including the Deutschmark). It began circulating in 2002 in 12 EU nations; the euro replaced the European Currency Unit, which had become the second most commonly used currency after the dollar. Today, though in a downward trend, many large companies use the euro rather than the dollar in bond trading (Greider, 24). Now that I have explained the evolution of the monetary system, you might be asking what does the IMF do? The IMF is the worlds central organization for international monetary cooperation and is headquartered in Washington, DC. The organization depends on cooperation of all participating countries in the world to work together to promote the common good of the monetary system. The IMFs primary purpose is to ensure the stability of the international monetary system; which currently is a system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries (and their citizens) to buy goods and services from each other. This action is essential for sustainable economic growth and to raise the living standards of the worlds population (IMF.COM). The IMF is currently trying to maintain economic stability and to prevent financial crises in the international monetary system. The IMF continuously reviews national, reg ional, and global economic markets for financial developments. It also provides advice to member countries, encouraging them to adopt policies that foster; Economic stability throughout the world Reduced the vulnerability to economic and financial crises Raise living standards The IMF also provides a forum where member countries can discuss the national, regional, and global consequences of their policies. The IMF also makes temporarily financing available to member countries to help them address balance of payments problems; when countries are short of foreign exchange because their payments to other countries exceed their foreign exchange earnings. This is the situation that Argentina found itself in, when the IMF denied them short term loans, like a banker the IMF must ensure they can repay the loan. The IMF also provides technical assistance and training to help countries build the expertise and institutions they need for economic stability and growth (IMF.COM). Obvi ously the as seen in the current recession the IMF cannot avoid every financial crisis, but it can help ensure that money is available to keep it spiraling out of control, much like the Great Depression of the 1930s. As I have stated the IMF is an organization of cooperating member countries. Crucial to the monetary system is the World Bank, they both have similar functions and the actions of each often appear as one, the Bank and the IMF are separate entities. To clear up the confusion it essential that the following differences are noted; The Bank is primarily a development institution. The IMF is a cooperative institution that seeks to maintain an orderly system of payments and receipts between nations. The IMF and the World Bank have and serve different purposes, they each have a distinct structure, funding is from different sources, assists different categories of members, and each have distinct goals(Greider, 75). To further help distinguish the IMF and the Worl d Bank, the bank has one primary goal; it promotes economic and social progress in developing countries. They accomplish this by helping to raise productivity so that their people may live a better and fuller life. This does not happen overnight and is not continuous, the general upward rise in the standard of living around the world since WW II is testament to the success of the World Bank. On the other hand remember the IMF tries to stabilize sudden and unpredictable variations in the monetary exchange values of national currencies. The IMF mainly functions on trust and cooperation, while the World Bank is the investment arm of the monetary system(Greider, 236). To help further define the World Bank it is made up of two organizations: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association (IDA). It should be noted to that another organization that has a role to play in the international monetary system is the International Financ e Corporation it provides funding for private enterprises in developing countries. The World Bank is the primary source of funding for countries, to help with the mission of the World Bank it employs an expertise in the following areas: economists, engineers, urban planners, agronomists, statisticians, lawyers, portfolio managers, loan officers, project appraisers, as well as experts in telecommunications, water supply and sewerage, transportation, education, energy, rural development, population and health care (IMF.Com). Since the demise of the fixed exchange rate system in 1971, primarily the flexible exchange rate system has been used to manage the international monetary system. The flex rate system seems to be more adaptable, to handle the constant changing landscape of the global economy. I think the fixed rate system is just too simple to handle the complexities of the modern system. The rate, at which news travels today, can be devastating on slow fixed rate system. The f lexible system also allows for countries to pursue an independent monetary policy, rather than have it set by a key currency such as the US Dollar. So far the flexible exchange rates have been more adaptable and have been able to distribute the burden of adjustment between the foreign economies and the domestic economy. A fixed rate system may be useful in a developing economy such as the previously mentioned Argentine case, but the change in the base currency (US Dollar) caused the devaluation of the Argentine peso. The Argentinean government was not able to recover fast enough to head off the economic collapse; in flexible system they may have been able to take proactive measures to avoid the situation they found themselves in. That is just a theory and it is yet to be seen if the Flexible system is better that the fixed rate system, but I am sure as there already has been changes that will impact the financial system, that will cause it adapt to some other policy. 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Global Entrepreneurship Monitor ( Gem ) - 3594 Words

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They know that starting their own business at any point in their life is still an option due to economic crisis, downsizing or other events. This is also confirmed by the literature on Youth Entrepreneurship, to which Student Entrepreneurship belongs. As Henderson and Robertson put it, â€Å"young people are likely to experience a portfolio career consisting of periods of paid employment, non-work, and self-employment (2000). Additionally, according to the latest report from the Kauffman Foundation (2013) it is a global phenomenon: â€Å"Among youngShow MoreRelatedGlobal Entrepreneurship Monitor ( Gem )860 Words   |  4 Pagescountries, UK and Singapore, will be conducted using the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Paul Reynolds and a team of scholars created the GEM model for an international index aimed to be an equivalent for entrepreneurship and enterprise of the World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness Index (Reynolds et al 2005). 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Contemporary Accounting Research Myer Holdings Ltd.

Question: Discuss about the Contemporary Accounting Research for Myer Holdings Ltd. Answer: Introduction In the main, this research paper would be helpful to evaluate annual reports of Myer Holdings Ltd. (MYR) with regards to the reporting requirements that are enforced on accountants. Moreover, for this paper I would like to select Myer Holdings Ltd as a prime company. The other company that I would like to select in order to make out the differences in disclosures is David Jones Limited (DJL). In addition to this, this research paper would be helpful to evaluate the annual reports of both companies in compliance with the conceptual framework in order to make out the discrepancy in corporate reporting in an effective way. Structure of the Paper In the first section of this paper I would like to provide all the detailed information of the both chosen companies MYR and DJL. Moreover, in the second section, I would like to confirm annual reports of both companies in compliance with the conceptual framework as well as standards. In the third section, I would like to give some important suggestions that the firms must implement to improve the overall efficiency of the organizations. Company Background Myer Holdings Ltd.: MYR is the leading retail company in Australia. It offers a large variety of products such as: clothes, toys, electrical, home wares, food confectionery, footwear accessories, cosmetics fragrance, books stationery, furniture bedding, travel goods, and so forth (Myer Pty Ltd. 2016). David Jones Limited: DJL is a fashionable department store in Australia. DJL was established by David Jones in 1838. Along with this, David Jones is the oldest operating department store that is still trading in its innovative name (David Jones. 2016). Annual Reports In Compliance With Conceptual Framework Standards Conceptual Framework: This discussion of this section is depends on the consolidated financial statements as well as annual reports of the Myer and Jones. To make this discussion effective and the comparison advantageous, the accounting policies that are used in the preparation of the financial as well as annual reports would also be discusses in this section. The management of both companies needs to estimate the things that may affect the annual reports of the organizations. It is because of a business organization contain inherent uncertainties and for that reason, the management must estimate and also make assumptions in order to prepare accurate financial reports as well as annual reports at the end of the year (Mondelez International, 2016). On the other hand, it should be noted down that, the Myer prepares its consolidated financial statements as per the AASB (Australian Accounting Standards Board). The firm fully obliged to implement the entire pre-determined accounting standard to prepare its consolidated financial statements in reference to AASB. The firm is obliged to make its financial statements according to the AASB due to several reasons. For case, the main reason is that, all the listed companies are obliged to work as per the Australian Accounting Standards Board. In this case, Myer is also a listed company and fully compelled to follow AASB in a systematic way (AASB, 2015). On the other hand, it should also be noted down that, AASB are also issued by IASB (International Accounting Standards Board) and all the listed organizations are obliged to prepare their consolidated financial statements as per the global accounting standards. Apart from this, David Jones is also a listed company and it is also obliged to prepare its consolidated financial statements in line with Australian Accounting Standards Board. In the same manner, it should be noted down that both Myer and David Jones put into practice the AASB accounting standards in order to prepare and to present their annual reports in an effective and an appropriate way (Wang, 2014). On the other hand, it should also be noted down that, the economic characteristic as well as risks that are inherent in the economy of the nation also influence the financial activities and outcomes of the companies. In that case, the accounting standards provided by AASB play a significant role in order to discontinue such activities that may influence the operations as well as financial results of the firms. Along with this, to break off these types of activities, AASB obliged to display all the additional disclosures such as: cash flow, balance sheet, and so no in order to prepa re consolidated financial statements and annual reports accurately (Tarca, Morris and Moy, 2013). As a result, Myer is including its additional disclosures in order to prepare its consolidated financial statements as well as annual reports as per the specified accounting standards. In the same manner, David Jones also applies the accounting standards provided by AASB in order to prepare as well as present its annual reports at the end of each and every financial year. Moreover, David Jones also operates its business in different countries and for that reason the firm concentrated on all its business as well as financial reports in order to make sure that all the financial statements and financial reports that is disclosed by the firm are adequate and also according to international financial reporting standards (Braun, Haynes, Lewis and Taylor, 2015). Along with this, the main focus of the firm is to observe all the international accounting standards as well as guidelines are followed by the firm in a proper way. In this wait, with the help of the valuation of both companies, it can be assumed that both Myer and David Jones follow the Australian Accounting Standards Board to prepare their consolidated financial statements and annual reports accurately. Fair Value Accounting Standards: On the basis of the previous annual reports of the chosen organizations, it should be noted down that both business organizations use fair value accounting method to predict the accurate value of assets, liabilities, and equities of the business firms. In addition to this, AASB also expresses that the firms must consider the fair value as price in order to sell their assets, to pay their liabilities and to make all the transactions in an effective and a comprehensive manner (Barth, 2015). On the other hand, it should also be noted down that, both companies take in historical cost convention method, assessment of investment properties, trading securities, available-for-sale financial assets, financial assets liabilities at fair value, derivative contracts, and so forth in order to proper financial reports of the firms in an accurate way. Moreover, fair value of valuation is an effective method that plays a critical role in order to estimate accurate value of the assets of the firms. In the AASB, the fair value method is also famous as market-to-market accounting practice (Crawford, Ferguson, Helliar and Power, 2014). In addition to this, both firms formulate as well as implement accounting standards in order to make sure the consistency and significance of the information that do not influence particular interests as well as results of the organizations. In addition to this, all the way by using the fair value method, both companies evaluate as well as represent their assured assets as well as liabilities in the balance sheet on the basis of their fair market prices. Moreover, both companies use fair value method to measure all their assets in order to reveal the exact value of business in front of their investors and shareholders (Daske, Hail, Leuz and Verdi, 2013). In addition to this, fair value accounting method entails financial reporting of assets as well as liabilities on the B/S at fair value. The method also reflects on changes in actual value of assets as well as liabilities the same as gains and losses in the income statement. Code of Conduct and Corporate Government Statement: On the basis of the annual reports of the firm, it should also be noted down that, Myer put into practice code of conduct and corporate government to prepare the report of director in an appropriate way. Along with this, David Jones also talks about the corporate governance in its financial statements. At the end of each and every year both firms issue a corporate governance report as the notes of the financial statements (Biondi, et al., 2014). Moreover, the codes of ethics reports of both companies are accessible on their official websites. It should also be noted down that corporate governance framework as well as practices provided numerous policies as well as guidelines that are adopted by the Board of the companies in order to meet their corporate social responsibilities in a proper way. In addition to this, Myer and David Jones also bring to light the work carried out by the companies over the past financial year. Both companies talk about the code of conduct that is related t o their workplaces (Barth, Landsman, Lang and Williams, 2012).. In this way, it can be said that, both companies follow corporate governance and also related documents, charters and policies appropriately. Economic and Risks Factors: Myer declared the economic as well as risks factors in the notes to its financial statements. David Jones did not state economic and risk factors in its financial statement. Moreover, in todays emerging market, economic, political and regulatory risks are evaluated by Myer effectively. Myer contains all the information in their Annual Report or on Form 10-K. Myer operates its businesses in the highly competitive industry, so it reveals the political, economic and regulatory risks and also forward-looking information in its annual reports (Christensen, Lee Walker and Zeng, 2015). The annual reports of Myer are free from bias because of it provides fair as well as accurate financial information in their financial or annual reports. Recommendation On the basis of the above conversation, it can be recommended that David Jones should release information linked to risk factors in its annual reports. For instance, the firm must prepare a report of statement that may represent all the business related risks in front of its investors and shareholders. This strategy would be helpful in order to improve the image of business firm in an effective way (Dye and Sunder, 2001).. Moreover, David Jones operates its business in the global market and also faces several risks; so it must point out the risks factors in its reports in order to designate the shareholders about the prospective of the business. In addition to this, it is also suggested that Myer must consider all the major aspects linked to the IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards). For case, in order to prepare and develop financial statements as well as reports, the firm must adopt and implement guidelines and standards of IFRS. The firm must prepare financial statements as per the accounting standards of IFRS. IFRS would also be helpful to overcome the financial error in a proper way. At the same time, it should also be noted down that, Myer runs its operations in many countries and as a result it should apply the international standards to follow international aspects connected to business (Francis, Huang and Khurana, 2015). On the other hand, it is also recommended that, Myer should release all its essential information for the profits of investors and stakeholders. Moreover, the firm should also work as per the accounting standards and also fulfill its corporate social responsibilities in an effective and a more comprehensive manner. In addition to this, it is also suggested that the firm must provide training to its human resources; so they can fulfill their corporate social responsibilities and also improve image of the corporation in front of others. To end with, it is also suggested that, the company should concentrate on different kinds of risks that may influence the profitability as well as productivity of the company in a negative way. The firm should develop innovative strategies to deal and to conquer certain risk in an effective way (Ahmed, Neel and Wang, 2013). On the whole, it is suggested that, the company should follow all the pre-determined guidelines and accounting standards for the ov erall success as well as growth of the organization. References AASB. (2016). Available At: https://www.aasb.gov.au/ [Accessed On 19th August 2016]. Ahmed, A. S., Neel, M. and Wang, D. (2013) Does mandatory adoption of IFRS improve accounting quality? Preliminary evidence. Contemporary Accounting Research, 30(4), pp. 1344-1372. Barth, M. E. (2015). Commentary on Prospects for Global Financial Reporting. Accounting Perspectives, 14(3), pp. 154-167. Barth, M. E., Landsman, W. R., Lang, M. and Williams, C. (2012). Are IFRS-based and US GAAP-based accounting amounts comparable? Journal of Accounting and Economics, 54(1), pp. 68-93. Biondi, Y., Tsujiyama, E., Glover, J., Jenkins, N. T., Jorgensen, B., Lacey, J. and Macve, R. (2014). Old hens make the best soup: accounting for the earning process and the IASB/FASB attempts to reform revenue recognition accounting standards. Accounting in Europe, 11(1), pp. 13-33. Braun, G. P., Haynes, C. M., Lewis, T. D. and Taylor, M. H. (2015). Principles-based vs. rules-based accounting standards: The effects of auditee proposed accounting treatment and regulatory enforcement on auditor judgments and confidence. Research in Accounting Regulation, 27(1), pp. 45-50. Christensen, H. B., Lee, E., Walker, M. and Zeng, C. (2015). Incentives or standards: What determines accounting quality changes around IFRS adoption? European Accounting Review, 24(1), pp. 31-61. Crawford, L., Ferguson, J., Helliar, C. V. and Power, D. M. (2014). Control over accounting standards within the European Union: the political controversy surrounding the adoption of IFRS 8. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 25(4), pp. 304-318. Daske, H., Hail, L., Leuz, C. and Verdi, R. (2013). Adopting a label: Heterogeneity in the economic consequences around IAS/IFRS adoptions. Journal of Accounting Research, 51(3), pp. 495-547. Dye, R. A. and Sunder, S. (2001). Why not allow FASB and IASB standards to compete in the US?. Accounting horizons, 15(3), pp. 257-271. Francis, J. R., Huang, S. X. and Khurana, I. K. (2015). The Role of Similar Accounting Standards In Crossà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Border Mergers and Acquisitions. Contemporary Accounting Research. Myer Pty Ltd. (2016). Annual Reports. Available At: https://investor.myer.com.au/Reports/ [Accessed On 19th August 2016]. Tarca, A., Morris, R. D. and Moy, M. (2013). An investigation of the relationship between use of international accounting standards and source of company finance in Germany. Abacus, 49(1), pp. 74-98. David Jones. (2016). Available At: https://www.davidjones.com.au/Contact-Us [Accessed On 19th August 2016]. Wang, C. (2014). Accounting standards harmonization and financial statement comparability: Evidence from transnational information transfer. Journal of Accounting Research, 52(4), pp. 955-992. Zeff, S. (2014). The IASB and FASB stumble over the annuity method of depreciation. Accounting in Europe, 11(1), pp. 55-57.

The Factors of Gangsterism free essay sample

Nowadays, there are lot of cases that involve students in gangsterism. According to Curry and Spergel (1990), gangsterism is defined as a crowd or collectively of person with a common identity who cooperate in clique or sometime as a whole group on a fairly regular basis and whose activities the society may view in varying degrees as rightful, illegal, immoral, or some combination. The problem of gangsterism among students of fully residential schools careful studies before effective action can be aken to overcome it. There are a few factors why students involve in gangsterims in school that are mind controlling, bullying, and beating each other. The main factors of gangsterism are beating and gamble. Due to chief Deputy of Comm. Datuk Mohd Mokhtar Mohd Sharif, said four boys who are understand to sit for their SPM exam this year were under arrest over kidnapping and beating of Lim Bing Li,17. He said that students should not mixed up with in gangs and they would not stand for gang linked crime and use all existing laws to catch those mixed up in activity. We will write a custom essay sample on The Factors of Gangsterism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some of the school students likes to huge in gamble until they cannot pay for it. As a result of teen gambling, there more teens with debts that they cannot hope for repayment, and a link to stealing and lying. Gambling is an addiction, and gamblers may spend more time on that activity, and less on schoolworks and building relationships with family and friends. On the other hand, gambling is related to other behaviours and factors such as poor academic performance, state in which at least of gambling are lawful.